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OCR for page 1275
Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
Index
A
Absorption of nutrients. See Bioavailability;
Intestinal absorption;
individual nutrients
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs).
See also individual nutrients and life-stage groups
defined, 14-15, 28, 39, 772, 941
evidence considered for, 15-16, 769
rationale for, 14, 28, 784
uses, 29, 941, 945, 946, 948-949
Adaptation, nutritional
amino acid metabolism, 618, 619
basal metabolism, 201
to carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 293
defined, 149, 973
in energy balance, 149-151, 201, 220, 223-224, 452
glucose metabolism, 277-278
growth impairment as, 151, 220, 437
to high-fat diets, 452
pregnancy and lactation, 34, 47, 197, 290, 291, 650
to protein metabolism, 47, 276, 279, 605, 611, 650, 657, 694
to starvation, 277-279, 605
weight as, 150
Adequate Intakes (AIs).
See also individual macronutrients and life-stage groups
criteria used to derive, 7-8, 10-11, 44-46
defined, 3, 22, 26
derivation of, 28, 31, 32, 47
extrapolation between other age groups, 26-27, 31-32, 34, 46, 47, 283
indicators used to set, 28
methods used to set, 44-46, 47, 280-283, 385-390, 456-457, 460-461, 464, 465, 466-470, 471-472, 619-621, 662-665
prevalence of intakes above, 789
RDA compared, 6, 26-27
uncertainty in, 26, 44
uses, 26, 936, 939-940, 944-945, 946, 948
Adiposity, 125, 130, 189, 200, 220, 379, 832.
See also Body fat content
Adolescents, ages 9 through 18 years.
See also Puberty/pubertal development
added sugars, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
ages 9 through 13 years, 35, 386, 463-464, 470, 624-627, 631, 665, 673-674, 769, 1126-1129, 1138-1143, 1172-1173, 1178-1181, 1206-1207, 1216-1217, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
ages 14 through 18 years, 35, 193, 201-202, 292, 293, 386, 389-390, 463-464, 465-466, 470, 471-472, 674-675, 729, 769, 1128-1129, 1143-1145, 1181-1183, 1208-1209, 1218-1219, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
AIs, 26-27, 33, 385-386, 388-389, 463-464, 470, 471-472, 632-633
AMDRs, 769, 816, 844, 945
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
amino acids, 664-670, 673-675, 702-703
aortic fatty streaks, 815
aspartame, 702-703
BMR, 178-179
body composition and size, 142, 178, 181, 626-629
bone mineralization, density, and mass, 66, 180
brain development, 288-289
carbohydrate, 284-285, 292, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
EARs, 33, 46-47, 284, 292, 293, 632, 664-669, 673-675
EERs, 175, 176-182, 193, 201-202, 216-219
energy intakes, 473, 474, 1206-1209, 1216-1219, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
extrapolation of data from adult values, 26-27
factorial methods, 628, 631
fat (total dietary), 459, 945, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
fatty acids, 456, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
fiber, 385-386, 388-389, 391, 394, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
glucose metabolism, 288-289
growth and development, 33, 142, 175, 177, 181, 182, 459, 654
lactation, 293, 389-390, 465-466, 471-472, 659
maintenance requirement, 667
nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 632, 664-666
nutrient intakes with added sugars, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
obese or overweight, 181, 216-219, 312, 459, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200, 1202
physical activity, 176-181, 182, 880, 883, 902-907, 911-912, 924, 1126-1129, 1138-1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 463-464, 465-466, 469-470, 471-472
pregnancy, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 465, 471-472, 650-652, 654-655
protein, 624-629, 631, 632-633, 665, 670, 769
RDAs, 285, 292, 293, 631-632, 655, 670, 673-675
reference weights and heights, 35, 136-137, 176, 178, 659, 670, 983
saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
special considerations, 216-219
sugar intakes, 312, 323, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
TEE, 176, 178, 181, 1126-1129, 1138-1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200, 1202
trans fatty acids, 456
vitamin and mineral intakes, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
weight, 216-219, 650, 652, 653, 655
Adults, ages 19 years and older.
See also Age/aging;
Lactation;
Pregnancy
added sugars, 295, 788-789, 1210-1215, 1220-1225
ages 19 through 50 years, 35, 46, 184, 186-189, 205-213, 286, 288, 292, 293, 296, 323, 371, 388, 389, 447, 450-452, 464, 471-472, 548, 614, 633-645, 648, 695, 887, 983-984, 701, 703, 720, 727, 729, 730, 1146-1159, 1164-1167, 1184-1187, 1190-1195, 1210-1211, 1220-1223, 1234-1235, 1240-1241
ages 51 years and older, 33-34, 66, 138, 143-144, 289, 296, 303, 358, 371, 388, 396, 398, 447, 450-452, 464, 548-549, 602, 603, 608, 634, 660, 661, 697, 704, 711, 723, 725, 734, 736-737, 841, 887, 922, 1150-1153, 1158-1163, 1186-1191, 1194-1199, 1214-1215, 1224-1225, 1236-1237, 1242-1243
AIs, 26, 33-34, 387-388, 464-466, 470-472
allergies, 692
AMDRs, 285, 769, 809, 826, 844, 941
amino acids, 594, 599, 607, 613, 614, 668, 669, 670-680, 686-688, 690-691, 692, 703, 720, 726
bioavailability of nutrients, 34
BMI, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310, 1078-1087, 1098-1103
body composition data, 1078-1103
body fat content, 111, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 131, 1078-1101
bone mineral density, 66
brain utilization of glucose, 285-289
carbohydrates, 265, 277, 285-289, 294-295, 769, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
catabolic stress, 594
CHD risk, 303, 366, 387-388, 777-784, 797-798
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
cholesterol, 548-549
dental caries, 296
diabetes (type 2), 268, 388, 784-785
dietary intakes, 294-295, 602, 695, 697, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
EARs, 33, 34, 46-47, 285-289, 292, 293, 633, 643-644, 646-649, 668, 670-679
EERs, 121, 124-130, 183-189
energy expenditure, 108, 116, 122-123, 131, 138, 140-141, 143-144
energy intakes, 474, 647, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
energy metabolism, 33, 54, 108, 116, 289
extrapolation of data to infants and children, 25, 26-27, 34, 46, 47, 284
fat (dietary), 459-460, 769, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
fiber, 354, 358, 366, 387-389, 396, 398, 788, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
glucose metabolism, 285-289, 388, 784-785
high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 792-810
hyperinsulinemia, 784-785
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 772-792
malnutrition, 608
methodological considerations, 47-48
monounsaturated fatty acids, 432
nitrogen balance studies, 275, 287, 618, 633-643, 661
nutrient intakes with sugars, 1210-1215, 1220-1225
obese and overweight, 122-123, 792-797, 1184-1199, 1201
peak bone mass, 33
physical activity, 66, 138, 143-144, 183-184, 186-189, 883, 895-903, 911-912, 1184-1199
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 433, 435, 464, 470-472, 478
protein, 287-288, 595, 602, 605, 608, 611-612, 633-649, 660, 661, 668, 686-688, 690-691, 692, 695, 769, 841
RDAs, 33, 47, 265, 289-290, 292, 293, 603, 644-645, 649, 667-669, 679-680
reference heights and weights, 35, 124, 125, 126, 128-130, 983-984
renal function, 34
reserve capacity and functioning, 33-34
saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
special considerations, 202-213, 220
sugar intakes, 323, 789, 792, 1210-1213, 1220-1225
TEE, 161-164, 183, 203, 1146-1165, 1184-1199, 1200-1201
vitamin and mineral intakes, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
weight and height, 143, 183, 184, 220, 1078-1081, 1088-1091
weight maintenance, 773-777
Adverse effects.
See also individual nutrients
defined, 84, 973
insufficient evidence of, 102-103, 970-971
nutrient–nutrient interactions, 85, 95
Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study, 912
African Americans
breast cancer, 379
energy expenditure, 145-146, 179
fiber, 379
pubertal development, 33
Age/aging.
See also Adolescents;
Adults;
Children;
Infants;
Life-stage groups
BMR, 131, 143
carbohydrate–lipid oxidation balance, 922
energy expenditure, 117, 143-144, 157, 158, 159-161, 181, 183
and energy requirements, 183, 647
fat absorption, 447, 450-452
glucose metabolism, 289
insulin resistance, 62
physical activity, 143-144, 922, 924
and protein reserve, 595, 602, 640-641, 642
reporting of dietary intakes, 117
RMR, 143
sensitivity to nutrient toxicity, 92
and sugar intakes, 323
TEF, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179
weight gain, 143, 167
Alanine (dispensable), 276, 591, 593, 594, 596, 597, 604, 605, 606, 696-697, 736, 992-993
Alaska Natives, 275, 284, 693
Albumin, 304-305, 430, 602, 609, 610
Alcohol
dietary intakes, 49, 110, 1064-1065
energy contribution, 109, 771, 1064-1065
and fatty acid oxidation, 109, 453
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
by life stage and gender group, 1064-1065
oxidation rate, 108-109
TEF, 109-110
Alcoholics and alcoholism, 110, 704
Aldosterone, 543
Allergic reactions, 295, 396, 397, 399
α-Ketoglutarate, 604, 605
α-Linoleic acid.
See also Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-3
AIs, 8-9, 11, 423, 466-472, 834, 944-945
AMDRs, 15-16, 770, 834-835
and CHD, 427, 770, 827, 828, 829
deficiency, 9, 423, 427, 439-440, 443-445, 470, 472
dietary intakes, 478, 834
food sources, 478, 771, 834
function, 423, 427, 435, 445, 466
interaction with linoleic acid, 447, 453-455, 472, 825
and learning behavior, 439, 445
metabolism, 434-435, 445-446, 468, 472
parenteral nutrition and, 444
protective effects, 427, 770
sources, 427, 447
supplementation, 444
and vision, 439, 440, 468
Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study, 483
Altitude, and energy expenditure, 149
Amino acids.
See also Protein;
individual amino acids
absorption, 621
adaptations in metabolism, 618, 619
adverse effects of, 696, 697-698, 701-703, 705-708, 711-712, 713-717, 720, 721-723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, 734-735
AIs, 662-663
alcoholism and, 704
animal studies, 671, 696, 697-698, 701-702, 703, 705, 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, 720, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730-732, 734-735
and appetite or eating behavior, 707, 709, 710, 713, 730, 731-732
and asthma, 716-717
and behavior, 697, 701, 713, 714, 721, 727, 729
bioavailability, 685
and body fat, 713
and brain chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735
branched-chain, 604, 616, 660, 704-711;
See also Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine
and cancer, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 710, 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843
and carbohydrates, 275, 276, 701, 731, 732-733
carbon metabolism, 605-607
catabolism, 278, 594, 603-608, 616, 617, 704, 712
and CHD risk, 726
chemistry, 590, 592-593
Chinese restaurant syndrome, 714, 715-716
composition of proteins, 279, 621, 666, 682, 685-686
deficiency, 662
deposition rate, 672-675
dermal effects, 733-734, 735
developmental studies, 708-710, 724, 732
diabetes and, 704
dietary intakes, 692, 696, 697, 700, 701, 704, 711, 712, 720, 721, 723, 725, 727, 729, 730, 731, 734, 736, 992-1027
digestibility, 621
direct amino acid oxidation method, 615-617, 618, 619, 670-671, 676-678
dose–response assessment, 697, 699-700, 703, 711, 712, 717, 719, 720, 723, 725, 726, 728, 729, 730, 731, 733-734, 736
EARs, 589, 619, 664-679, 680-681, 688
excretion, 604
factorial estimate, 614, 666-669
food sources, 48, 712-713, 714
free, 596-597, 599, 602, 603, 620, 692, 721
function, 9, 38, 589, 590, 696, 697, 701, 704-705, 712, 720-721, 725, 729, 731, 734, 736
and gastrointestinal disturbances, 698, 700, 714, 720, 722, 724, 726, 733
genotoxicity, 720
gluconeogenesis from, 276, 278, 288-289, 604, 606
and growth, 598, 607, 665, 666, 669, 697, 701, 707, 710, 713, 719, 720, 721, 724, 725, 728
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
hazard identification, 696-699, 700, 701-703, 704-710, 711-717, 718-719, 720, 721-723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, 734-735
and herpes infections, 724
high-protein diets and, 712
homeostasis, 595-598
hormonal effects, 715
human studies, 608-699, 702-703, 705-706, 712, 714-715, 720, 722-723, 724-725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 731-733, 735
imbalances in, 707, 708-709, 710, 726
and immune function, 697-698, 699
indicator amino acid oxidation method, 617-619, 670-671, 676, 677, 678
indicators for estimating requirements, 613-619
individual variability in requirements, 614, 665-666, 679
insulin sensitivity, 696, 701, 705, 710
intake assessment, 736-737
interactions with other nutrients, 721-723, 725, 726, 731
by life stage and gender group, 662-682, 992-1027
limiting, 602, 611, 614, 669, 685, 689, 690, 691
and lipid profiles, 721, 724
liver function and, 704, 705, 721
losses, 601, 614
low-protein diets, 697, 707, 709, 721, 731-732
maintenance, 666, 667-669, 672-675
and malnutrition, 704
maple syrup urine disease, 704, 706
metabolic disorders, 697, 700, 704, 705, 706, 710, 714, 727, 728, 735
metabolic pathways, 597-598, 600, 617, 660, 697, 701, 704, 705, 717, 719, 724, 726, 728-729, 731
neurological effects, 696, 699, 701-702, 703, 704-705, 706, 711, 714, 715, 717, 718, 719, 727, 728, 733
nitrogen balance studies, 612, 613-614, 618, 662, 664-666, 670-671, 676, 677, 678, 688
nitrogen metabolism, 278, 603-605, 718, 720
nitrogen utilization through nonprotein pathways, 607-608
nutritional and metabolic classification, 593-594
and obesity, 701, 704, 732
opthalmologic effects, 711, 714, 720, 722, 729, 734, 735, 736
parenteral nutrition and, 699, 705, 714, 718, 719, 722-723
and physical exercise, 702, 705-706
planning and assessing intakes, 961-963
plasma amino acid response method, 614-615, 670-671
precursors of nonprotein products, 608
protective effects, 726
quality of protein source, 661, 662, 684-690, 721
RDAs, 47, 672-675, 679-680, 681, 682
reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715
research recommendations, 737-738
risk characterization, 737
scoring, 14, 589, 662, 685, 686-691
selection of indicators for estimating requirements, 613-619
and somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733
special considerations, 728
and starvation, 693, 704
supplementation, 695-735
synthesis, 275, 701, 712, 717, 723, 729, 734
and taste and smell acuity, 722
teratogenic effects, 708, 728
trauma and, 596, 605
24-hour amino acid balance method, 616-617, 670-671, 676, 677
ULs, 695-737
variance in requirements, 688
and weight, 697, 698, 700, 707, 709, 713, 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734
Amino sugars, 684
Ammonia, 56, 375, 377, 603, 604, 605, 684, 697, 714, 717-718, 719
Amylopectin, 267-268, 269, 272
Amylose, 267, 272
Animal studies
advantages, 94-95, 97
amino acids, 671, 696, 697-698, 701-702, 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, 720, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730-732, 734-735
carbohydrate, 40, 275
cholesterol, 548, 562
colon cancer, 377
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
dose-response assessment, 96, 98, 100
extrapolation of data from, 40, 87, 95, 97, 98, 100, 101, 492, 562, 1245-1246
fat, 40
fiber, 351, 361, 377
hazard identification, 94-95, 96, 696, 697-698, 701-702, 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730-732, 734-735
nitrogen balance studies, 671
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 444-445, 492
pregnant animals, 709, 726
protein, 40
relevance of, 39, 40, 94, 96, 703, 705, 711, 727
uncertainties in, 100, 1245-1246
Apolipoprotein A-I, 61
Apolipoprotein B100, 503
Apolipoprotein CH, 429
Apolipoprotein E, 544
Apoproteins, 429
Apoptosis, 55, 833, 837-838
Appetite, 383, 707, 709, 710, 713, 730, 731-732, 795
Arabinose, 345
Arachidonic acid, 425, 426, 433-434, 435, 438, 439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 446-447, 453-454, 455-456, 465, 469, 472, 476, 478, 824, 838
Arginase, 605
Arginine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597, 605, 608, 697-700, 709, 712, 717, 724, 736, 994-995
Arginine glutamate, 714
Arginionsuccinic acid synthetase, 697, 700
Arizona Wheat-bran Fiber Trial, 374
Arteriosclerosis, 130, 842
Asians, obese, 352
Asparagine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 700
Aspartame, 695, 702-703, 727
Aspartic acid/aspartate (dispensable), 591, 592, 593, 594, 597, 604, 605, 608, 695, 709, 736, 996-997
Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, 340, 344
Assessment of nutrient intakes
added sugars, 957
AI and, 939-940, 944-945
AMDR and, 941, 945
amino acids, 960-963
biochemical approach, 944
carbohydrate, 956-957
cut-point method, 943
EAR and, 938-939, 943-944
energy, 48, 225, 954-956
fat, 959
fiber, 957-958
of groups, 16-18, 941-945
of individuals, 937-941
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960
probability approach, 942-943, 944
protein, 960-961
RDA and, 938-939, 944
UL and, 940, 945
Asthma, 396, 399, 716-717
Atherogenic dyslipidemia, 777
Atherogenic lipid profile, 802
Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, 777, 782
Atherosclerosis, 59, 485-486, 546, 548, 549, 560, 562, 563, 823-824, 826, 836-837, 840
Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, 563
Athletes, 115.
See also Physical activity
amino acid supplements, 702, 706
endurance training, 660
energy balance, 221-223, 452
high-carbohydrate diet, 452
high-fat diet, 452
lipoprotein profile, 61
low fat, high carbohydrate diet, 773
protein, 660-661
resistance training, 660
runners, 61, 773
skeletal health, 66
Autoimmune diseases, 487
B
Balance studies.
See also Nitrogen balance studies
cholesterol, 543-544
defined, 40
limitations of, 40-41, 617, 676
methionine, 677
24-hour amino acid method, 616-617
zinc bioavailability, 394
Basal energy expenditure (BEE)
defined, 112
DLW data, 1104-1202
fat-free mass and, 128, 186
gender differences, 141, 217
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and MET rate, 888
obese and overweight individuals, 217
prediction, 114, 171, 178-179, 186, 205, 217
Schofield equations, 171, 178-179, 186
and weight, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, 206-213, 888
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 25
adaptations, 201
adolescents, 178-179
aging and, 131, 143
altitude and, 149
body composition and size and, 131, 141
and carbohydrates, 196
children, 141, 171, 1114-1121
climate and, 148
defined, 112
and energy expenditure, 112-114, 115, 131, 141, 164-165, 171, 178-179, 185, 188-190, 195
and energy requirement, 164-165, 171, 178-179, 185, 188-190, 195-196
ethnic differences, 146
FFM and, 139
gender differences, 141
infants, 164-165, 1106-1114
lactation, 195-196
measurement, 165, 171, 185, 188
menstrual cycle and, 140, 141
pregnancy, 185, 188-191, 291
protein balance and, 598
sedentary individuals, 115
Basal requirement, 24
Beans. See Legumes
Behavior.
See also Eating behavior
amino acid intake and, 697, 701, 713, 714, 721, 727, 729
breastfed infants, 621
learning, 439, 445, 446, 447, 697, 713, 729
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 439, 445, 446, 447
sugar intake and, 295-296, 323
Bengal gram, 366-367
β3-Adrenergic receptor gene, 145
β-Glucans (dietary or functional fiber), 345, 355-356
β-Hydroxybutyrate, 285, 430
Bioavailability of nutrients
age/aging and, 447, 450-452
amino acids, 685
balance studies and, 394
defined, 93, 973
factors affecting, 29-30, 93-94, 271, 281
fat intake and, 424, 785, 788-792
fiber consumption and, 29, 94, 348, 351-352, 369, 382, 391, 394-395, 397-398, 838
in human milk, 431, 447, 621, 944
in infant formula, 26, 31, 45, 431, 940, 944, 946
nutrient–nutrient interactions and, 93, 271, 281, 424
and risk assessment, 93-94, 98
from supplements, 29, 93, 94
Biomarkers of disease, 41
Bladder cancer, 708, 710
Bleeding time, 492-493
Blood pressure.
See also Hypertension
amino acids and, 735
fiber and, 60
physical activity and, 60
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 829
trans fatty acids and, 504
weight and, 204
Body composition and size.
See also Body fat content;
Fat-free mass;
Fat mass;
Obesity and overweight
adolescents, 142, 178, 181
adults, 1078-1103
and BMR, 131, 141
CLA and, 836-837
and energy expenditure, 65, 112, 117, 131-135, 138, 139, 141
gender differences, 128, 142, 1078-1103
genetic factors, 144, 146
NHANES III data, 124, 125, 130, 982, 1078-1103
pregnancy and, 188, 191-192
protein deposition, 626-629, 644
and reporting of dietary intakes, 117
research recommendations, 225, 240
and sensitivity to nutrients, 92
and TEE, 132
undernutrition and, 220
Body fat content.
See also Body Mass Index;
Fat mass
adults, 111, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 131, 1078-1101
amino acid intake and, 713
bioimpedance data, 124
BMI and, 121, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 1080-1087, 1098-1101
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
and cancer, 379
gender differences, 1078-1101
height and, 125, 128-130, 1078-1081, 1088-1089
infants, 142, 621
obesity, 126
physical activity and, 57, 61, 139, 180, 181
protein intake and, 843
reserves, 111, 220
and triceps skinfold, 125, 128, 1080-1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093, 1100-1101
and waist circumference, 1084-1085, 1094-1099
and weight, 1090-1091
Body Mass Index (BMI)
adults, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310, 1078-1087, 1098-1103
and body fat content, 121, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 1080-1087, 1098-1101
and cancer, 238-239
and CHD, 124, 232-233
children, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 814, 1114-1121
and chronic disease, 224, 226-239, 303
cutoffs, 121, 126
defined, 121
and diabetes type 2, 124, 226-229
fat intake and, 814
fiber consumption and, 352, 379, 383, 384
gender differences, 125-129, 1078-1087, 1098-1103
glycemic index and, 313
healthy, 121, 124, 126
and height, 1080-1081
as indicator of energy requirement, 121, 124-131
infants, 1106-1114
methodological issues, 121, 124-125
and mortality, 484
obesity, 126, 204, 216, 310, 313
PAL and, 220, 223, 814, 911
previous median vs. new median, 35
protein intake and, 843
reference heights and weights and, 35, 36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130
saturated fatty acid intake and, 484
sugar intake and, 65, 310, 313, 316-319
and triceps skinfold, 1080-1081, 1086-1087, 1100-1101
waist circumference used with, 124-125, 127, 1080-1081, 1084-1085, 1098-1099, 1102-1103
and weight, 1080-1081
Body weight. See Weight
Bogalusa Heart Study, 307, 310, 314-315, 792-793, 815
Bone mineral density, 66, 180, 276, 928
Brain
amino acids, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711, 714, 721, 724, 731, 732, 734, 735
carbohydrate utilization, 38, 265, 273, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289, 430
chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735
cholesterol synthesis by infants, 545, 548
glucose metabolism, 38, 265, 273, 276, 277, 279-280, 285-289
macronutrients needed by, 771
pituitary adenomas, 396
polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and, 444-445, 466, 468
Bran, 350, 353, 355, 356, 359, 367, 368, 371, 372, 378, 394, 395, 838
Breast cancer
arginine and, 698-699, 700
BMI and, 238-239
case-control studies, 54, 378
cholesterol intake and, 568, 574-575
conjugated linoleic acid and, 837, 838
cross-cultural studies, 54, 377-378
epidemiological studies, 54
fat intake and, 54, 55, 486, 512-513, 808, 843
fiber intake and, 56, 377-380
intervention studies, 378-379
monounsaturated fatty acid intake and, 819
physical activity and, 57
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 825, 833
prospective studies, 378
protein intake and, 843-844
sugar intake and, 319-320
Breastfeeding.
See also Human milk;
Infants;
Lactation
and energy expenditure, 165
recommendations, 31, 45, 171, 281, 662
Butyrate, 56, 348, 349, 361, 371, 375
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
C
Calcium, 281, 391, 394, 431, 592, 789, 790-793, 811, 812, 813, 835, 838, 840, 841, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224-1225, 1228-1243
Canada
dietary intake data, 295, 473, 479, 481, 692, 1066-1075
fiber definitions and guidelines, 340, 349
Food Guide to Healthy Eating, 771
human milk intake and composition, 172-173
physical activity recommendations, 883
Canadian National Institute of Nutrition, 979
Canadian Paediatric Society, 31, 32, 45, 46
Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology, 883
Cancer.
See also individual histological sites
amino acids and, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 710, 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843
BMI and, 238-239
body fat and, 379
carbohydrate intake and, 55, 319-321
cholesterol and, 54, 568, 570-579
CLA and, 427
energy intake and, 54
evidence about dietary factors, 53
fat intake and, 54-55, 375, 376, 484, 486, 512-513, 808
fiber intake and, 54, 55-56, 319, 321, 339, 373-380, 396, 398
glycemic index of foods and, 310-311, 319, 321
high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, 808
hormone-related, 56
monounsaturated fatty acids and, 55, 486, 819
physical activity and, 56-57
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 54, 824-825, 833-834
protective effect of nutrients, 54, 55, 819, 833-834
protein intake and, 54, 843-844
sugars and, 54, 55, 319-320, 321, 323
Caproic acid, 425
Caprylic acid, 425
Carbohydrate, dietary.
See also Glucose;
Glycemic index;
High fat, low carbohydrate diets;
Low fat, high carbohydrate diets;
Starch;
Sugar;
individual life-stage groups
adaptation to starvation, 277-278, 293
adverse effects of overconsumption, 295-323
aging and, 289
AIs, 32, 280-283, 944
AMDRs, 15, 285, 769, 785, 809, 816
amino acids and, 275, 276, 701, 731, 732-733
animal derived, 342;
See also Fiber
and BMR, 196
brain utilization, 38, 265, 273, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289, 430
Canada, 295, 1068-1069
and cancer, 55, 319-321
and CHD, 59, 303, 797, 798-799, 800-801
classification, 265-266
clinical effects of inadequate intakes, 275-276
compared to other nutrient intakes, 1226-1243
and dental caries, 296-297
and diabetes type 2, 63, 302, 303, 306-307, 785
dietary intakes, 46, 65, 265, 294-295, 770-771, 943, 944, 1032-1035, 1068-1069, 1226-1243
digestion, 272
EARs, 4, 6, 277-280, 284, 285-289, 290-293
energy contribution, 280, 281, 294-295, 770-771, 813, 1034-1035, 1226-1243
epidemiological studies, 783, 785, 800-801
fatty acid synthesis, 275, 277, 433
food sources, 265, 280-281, 294, 771
function, 4, 38, 265
and growth, 280-281, 922-923
hazard identification, 295-321
high-carbohydrate diets, 295, 297, 438, 769, 772-792, 795
in human milk, 281-283, 292
intake assessment, 323
intervention studies, 785, 786-787
intestinal absorption, 60, 272-273, 281, 323, 369
by life stage and gender group, 6, 280-293, 988-991, 1032-1033, 1068-1069
and lipid oxidation, 917-923
and lipid profile, 275, 277, 278-279, 297-303, 781, 782-784
low carbohydrate diets, 293, 430, 784, 792-810
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
malabsorption, 397
and mental health, 276
metabolism, 38, 64, 190, 196, 273-275, 424
and micronutrient inadequacies or excesses, 812, 816, 1226-1243
and obesity, 65, 275, 307, 310-319, 769
and physical activity, 64, 318-319, 452, 917-923
planning intakes, 956-957, 964
RDAs, 4, 6, 47, 265, 285, 289-290, 292, 293
research recommendations, 323-324
special considerations, 283, 293
TEF, 110, 114
total, 63, 956-957
Carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 281, 287-288, 289, 293, 701
Carbon metabolism, 605-607
Carboxymethylcellulose gum, 367, 382
Carboxypeptidases, 599
Cardiac arrhythmias, 59, 60, 427, 829, 927
Cardiovascular disease.
See also Atherosclerosis;
Coronary artery disease;
Coronary heart disease
cholesterol intake, 546, 548, 549, 560, 562
lipid profile and, 302, 562-569
monounsaturated fatty acids and, 485-486
physical exercise and, 60-61, 927
Carnitine, 430, 607, 608, 723, 724
Carnosine, 721
Carotenoids, 424, 785, 792-793
Catecholamines, 608, 735
Caucasians
carbohydrate-free diet, 275
energy expenditure, 145-146
pubertal development, 33
Cell growth and proliferation, 55
Cell surface adhesion proteins, 490
Cellulose (dietary or functional fiber), 344-345, 348, 350, 351, 356, 358, 359, 367, 371, 372, 382, 390, 394
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 130, 216
Cereals and cereal fiber, 55-56, 359, 363, 364, 369, 370, 373, 377, 378, 380-381, 387, 388, 394, 399, 788
Chicago Western Electric Study, 562, 826-827, 828
Children, ages 1 through 8 years.
See also Life-stage groups;
Toddlers
added sugars, 294, 812-813, 816, 1204-1205
AIs, 26-27, 32, 34, 385-386, 463, 469-470
allergies, 692
AMDRs, 769, 816, 826, 844, 941, 945
amino acids, 25, 589, 614, 619, 664-670, 672-673, 686, 687, 689, 702-703, 720
aortic fatty streaks, 815
aspartame, 702-703
BMI, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 310, 814, 1114-1127, 1128-1139
BMR, 141, 171, 1114-1121
bone mass, 66
brain development, 284, 286-287, 288-289, 608-609
carbohydrates, 65, 265, 284-285, 294, 295, 769, 813, 1226-1231
chronic disease risk in adulthood, 130, 814-815
congenital defects of amino acids, 619, 697
constipation, 370-371, 385-386
dental caries, 296
derivation of DRIs, 32
diarrhea, 438
EARs, 25, 32, 34, 46-47, 284, 631, 664-669, 672-673
EERs, 107, 130-131, 168-170, 171, 174-177, 216-219
energy expenditure, 116, 134-135, 138, 141, 146, 148, 161-164, 174, 1114-1127
energy intakes, 54, 65, 170, 386, 473, 474, 814, 1226-1231
epilepsy, 284
extrapolation of data from adults to, 25, 26-27, 34, 47, 284
factorial method, 628, 631, 666-669
fat (dietary), 437, 438, 441, 459, 769, 810, 814-816, 945, 1226-1227, 1230-1231
fatty acids, 456, 1228-1231
fiber, 370-371, 385-386, 1226-1227, 1230-1231
glucose metabolism, 286-287, 288-289
growth, 32, 47, 134, 142, 151, 167-168, 174, 175, 221, 222, 437, 441, 456, 459, 609, 611, 810-811, 839-840, 922-923
high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 814-816
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
hyperactivity, 295
hypercholesterolemia, 811
lipid profiles, 811, 814-815
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 438, 810-814
malnutrition, 167, 608-609, 839
methodological considerations, 25, 47-48
micronutrient intakes with macronutrients, 220, 811-814, 816, 1204-1205, 1228-1231
nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 664-666
of obese parents, 133
obesity or overweight, 65, 130, 134, 140, 153, 216-219, 307, 310, 312-313, 459, 811, 814, 923, 1168-1179, 1200, 1202
PAL, 166, 1122-1127, 1128-1139, 1168-1179
phenylketonuria, 619
physical activity, 66, 138, 140, 146, 171, 174, 880, 883, 902-907, 911-912, 924
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 438, 444, 463, 469-470
protein, 25, 284, 608-609, 611, 624-629, 631, 667-669, 686, 687, 689, 692, 769, 811, 839-840
RDAs, 25, 34, 47, 265, 285, 631-632, 670, 672-673
saturated fatty acids, 474, 816, 835, 1226-1227, 1230-1231
special considerations, 216-219
stunting, 151, 217, 220, 221, 222, 811, 840
sugar intakes, 307-310, 813-814, 1204-1205
TEE, 134-135, 148, 161-164, 166, 174, 217, 1114-1127, 1128-1139, 1168-1179, 1200, 1202
TEF, 134, 171
toddlers (1 to 3 years), 32, 35, 130, 132-135, 166, 167-170, 284, 285, 386, 463, 470, 626-628, 631, 632, 664, 672, 686, 687, 689, 769, 816, 1106-1123, 1128-1129, 1226-1231
trans fatty acids, 456
UL derivation for, 34
underweight, 130, 811
urea synthesis defects, 699
wasting, 840
weight control, 216-219
weights and heights, reference, 34, 35, 130, 132-137, 176, 178, 983
Chinese restaurant syndrome, 715-716
Chitin and chitosan (functional fiber), 345, 351-352, 384, 395-396
Chloride, 725
Cholesterol (dietary)
absorption, 4, 60, 359, 369, 543-544, 561
animal studies, 548, 562
adverse effects of, 549, 558-573
balance studies, 543-544
and cancer, 54, 568, 570-579
and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548, 549, 560, 562
and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572, 573, 836
and diabetes type 2, 563
dietary intake, 549, 550-559, 563, 960, 1058-1059
dose–response assessment, 568-573
epidemiological studies, 562-569
food sources, 48, 544, 545, 546-549, 836
function, 4, 542, 543
hazard identification, 549-568
high cholesterol diets, 545, 836
by life stage and gender group, 546-549, 1058-1059
and lipid profile, 544-545, 548-562, 563, 568-569, 573
and lipoprotein metabolism, 544-545, 548-562, 563, 568-569, 573
low cholesterol diets, 546, 561, 835
metabolism, 4, 429, 544-546, 562
oxidation products, 545-546
reducing intakes, 836
research recommendations, 574-575, 578
risk characterization, 573-574
Cholesterol (plasma/serum total), 572.
See also HDL cholesterol;
LDL cholesterol
amino acids and, 721, 724
and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548, 549, 560, 562
and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572, 573, 836
cholesterol intakes and, 550-561
fat intake and, 58, 544, 550-559, 560, 809
fiber intake and, 4, 59-60, 339, 351, 352, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358-359, 360, 361, 365-368
genetic factors, 58, 544, 545, 546, 561-562
glycemic index and, 302
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
recommended, 4, 56, 880, 882-883, 910, 911-912, 913, 926, 928-929
reported, 184
research recommendations, 225, 829
residual effects of, 112, 139
and skeletal health, 66, 180, 928
sleeping, 118
special considerations, 660-661
spontaneous nonexercise activity, 139-140, 146
TEF and, 884, 886, 895
trends in, 881-882
walking, 115, 116, 140, 158, 161, 183-184, 190, 881, 889-894, 895, 903, 906-909, 912, 913, 927
and weight control, 209, 452, 888, 908
Physical activity level (PAL)
active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 895-899, 900-903
age/aging and, 143
BEE and, 887, 888, 895
BMI and, 220, 223, 814, 911
and BMR, 115, 902
body weight and, 116, 184, 889, 891-895
calculation, 887-889
categories, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 183
and chronic disease risk reduction, 914-917
defined, 116, 174, 887
DLW studies, 895
evaluation of, 118, 180, 895-909
exercise program, 209
gender differences, 903, 904-905
and glycemic index of foods, 318
impact of activities on, 884-912
intensity of physical activity and, 138, 184, 887-889, 904-905
low-active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 183, 895-899
measurement, 174
reference activity, 889
RMR and, 917
sedentary, 115, 118-119, 140, 183, 200, 895-899
TEE and, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 884, 887, 906-909
very active lifestyle, 115, 138, 158-159, 162-163, 895-899
Physical exercise
adaptations in program, 928
age and, 922, 924
amino acid supplements and, 702, 705-706
athletes, 115, 138, 139, 180, 918, 924, 925
and body composition, 922, 923, 924
carbohydrate balance and, 64, 318-319, 452, 917-923, 924-925
and carbohydrate/electrolyte beverages, 924-925
and cardiovascular events, 927
defined, 881
and dehydration, 926-927
duration, 918, 920-921
endurance (aerobic), 61, 138, 140, 143, 318, 452, 660, 882, 916, 917, 918, 923, 924
energy expenditure for, 884, 924
excess post-exercise oxygen consumption, 112, 139
female athlete triad, 928
gender differences, 921, 928
and growth and development, 180, 922-923
and hyperthermia, 910, 926-927
and hypothermia, 927
intensity, 918-920, 921, 922, 925
and lipid oxidation, 917-923
overuse injuries, 926
physical education in schools, 923, 924
pregnancy and, 907, 908-911
recovery from illness and, 922
resistance exercise, 223, 661, 925, 928
running, 115, 138, 184, 223, 892, 893, 894, 926
treadmill, 184, 913
and weight, 61, 115-116, 213-215, 452, 773
Physical fitness
defined, 179-180, 881
endurance (aerobic) training and, 923
intensity of exercise and, 140
objectives, 883
pregnancy and, 907-908
resistance exercise and, 925, 928
and spontaneous physical activity, 139
supplementation of water and nutrients, 925-926
Physicians’ Health Study, 827, 828
Phytochemicals, 369, 379, 391, 394, 395, 788
Pima Indians, 134, 146, 804-807
Pituitary adenomas, 396
Planet Health, 318-319
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
Planning nutrient intakes
AI and, 946, 948
AMDR and, 946, 948-949
carbohydrate, 956-957, 964
EAR and, 947-948
energy, 949-956, 963, 964
fat, 959
fiber, 957-958, 964
of groups, 947-949, 952-954
of individuals, 946, 949-952
integrated example, 963-964, 965
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960, 964
protein and amino acids, 946, 961, 964
RDA and, 946
saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol, 960
UL and, 946, 947-948
Plant sterols, 544
Plasma amino acid response method, 614-615, 670-671
Poland and United States Collaborative Study on Cardiovascular Epidemiology, 484
Polydextrose (dietary or functional fiber)
adverse effects, 398
characteristics, 341, 346-347
laxation, 357
and lipid concentrations, 357
uses, 36
Polyp Prevention Trial, 374
Polysaccharides, 265, 341, 342, 343, 344, 350, 377
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-3.
See also α-Linoleic acid;
other individual fatty acids
absorption, 434
adverse effects of, 63, 487-494
AMDRs, 834-835
animal studies, 444-445, 492
and bleeding time, 492-493
and blood pressure, 829
and body fat, 832
and cancer, 54, 55, 833-834
and carbohydrate utilization, 832
and cardiovascular disease, 59, 455
and CHD, 59, 62-63, 455, 492, 826-827, 828-829
deficiency, 439-440, 443-447, 454-455, 469, 834
and diabetes, 494, 832-833
dietary intakes, 478, 959-960, 944, 1048-1057
epidemiological studies, 826-828, 832
evidence considered for estimating requirements, 443-447
excretion, 435
food sources, 478, 771
function, 8, 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468, 469
and glucose metabolism, 833
and growth, 444-447, 468, 469, 471
hazard identification, 487-493
high-intake diets, 834
and immune function, 443, 487-492, 834
and insulin sensitivity, 832-833
interaction of n-6 and, 453-454
intervention studies (nonclinical), 828, 830-831, 832-833
and learning behavior, 445, 446, 447
by life stage and gender group, 11, 466-473, 1048-1049
and lipid profile, 826, 828, 830-831
low intake diets, 826-834
metabolism, 434-435, 439, 445-447, 453-456, 466
n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 446-447, 454-455, 472, 834
and neural development and function, 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468, 469
and obesity, 832
oxidative damage, 493, 832
parenteral nutrition and, 443, 454-455, 469
protective effects of, 55, 826-834
randomized controlled clinical trials, 446, 828-829
research recommendations, 509, 514
special considerations, 469, 471-472, 494
and stroke risk, 59, 492-493, 827-828, 829, 834
supplements, 455, 471-472, 487-491, 492-493, 494, 828, 829, 832, 833
and total fat, 58
trans fatty acid impact, 455-456
vegetarian diets, 466
and vision, 443, 444, 445, 446
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-6.
See also Linoleic acid;
other specific fatty acids
absorption, 433
adverse effects of overconsumption, 486, 825
adverse effects of underconsumption, 821-822
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
AIs, 461, 944-945
AMDRs, 486, 825-826
and cancer risk, 54, 824-825
and CHD, 59, 434, 798-799, 820-821
deficiency, 8, 438-439, 442, 454-455, 460, 463, 464, 785
and diabetes risk, 821
dietary intakes, 442, 478, 944, 959-960
energy contribution, 478, 821
epidemiological studies, 820-821
evidence considered for estimating requirements, 442-443
excretion, 434
food sources, 476, 822
function, 426-427
and glucose metabolism, 821
high-intake diets, 823-825
and immune function, 439
and inflammatory disorders, 824
interaction of n-3 and, 453-454
intervention studies, 821
by life stage and gender group, 10, 460-466
and lipid peroxidation, 823-824
and lipid profile, 59, 798-799, 820-821, 822-824
low fat diets and, 785
low intake diets, 820-823
metabolism, 8, 433-434, 442, 443, 453-456, 476
n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 442, 446-447, 454-455, 472, 834
parenteral nutrition and, 438, 442, 444, 454-455, 460, 464
primary, 426
requirement, 38
research recommendations, 508-509
special considerations, 461, 463
trans fatty acid impact, 455-456
Potassium, 650-653, 725, 838
Prealbumin, 609, 610
Pregnancy.
See also Lactation
adaptation to, 34, 47, 197, 290, 291, 650
adolescents, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 465, 471-472, 650-652, 654, 655
AIs, 34, 47, 388, 465, 471-472
amino acids, 680-681, 709, 724, 726, 732, 735
animal studies, 709, 726
BMR, 185, 188-191, 291
body composition, 188, 191-192
carbohydrates, 188
cervical ripening, 472
CHD risk, 389
derivation of DRIs for, 34, 47-48
DLW studies, 193, 196-197, 290
EARs, 34, 47, 290-292, 650-655, 680
EERs, 107, 116-117, 185, 188-194, 437
energy metabolism, 47, 185, 188-189, 193, 194-195, 197, 290
fat (dietary), 290, 437
fiber, 353, 388
food supplementation trials, 654
glucose metabolism, 189-190, 290-291
growth of maternal and fetal tissues, 92, 190-192, 194-195
insulin resistance, 189, 291
multiparous, 656
nitrogen balance studies, 650-653, 654-655
obesity and overweight, 191
obligatory fetal transfer, 47
physical activity, 190, 197, 907-911, 1164-1165
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 465, 471-472
potassium balance, 650-653
protein, 839
RDA, 292, 656, 680-681
special considerations, 656
supplements, 654, 656, 726
TEE, 116, 193, 197, 290, 1164-1165
thermic effect of food, 190
ULs, 92
weight, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192, 196, 650, 652, 653, 655, 709, 726, 732, 908, 910
Prolactin, 189, 715
Proline (dispensable), 592, 593, 607, 697, 712, 717, 728-729, 736, 1016-1017
Prospective studies, breast cancer and dietary fiber, 378
Prostaglandins, 434, 838
Prostate cancer, 54, 55, 56, 57, 321, 379, 486, 568, 578-579, 808, 819, 825, 833-834, 837, 844
Protease, 602
Protective effects
α-linoleic acid, 427, 770
amino acids, 726
cancer prevention, 54, 55, 819, 833-834
CLA, 428, 836-838
diabetes type 2, 380-381
OCR for page 1311
Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
fiber, 55-56, 59, 63, 322, 339, 348, 363, 367-368, 369, 372, 374, 375, 376-380
Protein.
See also Amino acids;
Nitrogen
absorption, 114, 599-600, 609
adaptations to metabolism of, 47, 293, 596, 605, 611, 650, 657, 694
adverse effects of, 692-694
age/aging and, 595, 602, 640-641, 642
AIs, 619-621
allergies, 692
AMDR, 15, 769, 844
amino acid content, 279, 621, 666, 682, 685-686
and amino acid homeostasis, 595-598
assessment of nutritional status, 609-610
and birth weight, 840
and blood pressure, 60, 843
and BMR, 598
body composition and, 626-629, 644, 843
body reserve, 595-596, 602, 609
and cancer, 54, 843-844
catabolism, 278, 284
and CHD, 60
chemistry, 590-592
chronic disease risk, 694
climate and, 640-641, 642
clinical effects of inadequate intake, 608-609
complete, 691
and coronary artery disease, 694, 842-843
deficiency, 601-602, 608-610, 620, 662, 840
degradation, 602
deposition rates, 626-629, 665, 666, 669, 837
dietary intakes, 589, 596, 602-603, 624, 662, 692, 1060-1063, 1074-1075
digestion and digestability, 9, 589, 592, 599-600, 621, 662, 682-684, 688-690
dose–response assessment, 694
EARs, 12-13, 624-629, 631, 637, 643-644, 646-649, 650-654
efficiency of utilization, 666
energy contribution, 109, 589, 605, 647, 648, 771, 1062-1063, 1074-1075
factorial method, 624, 628, 629, 633, 657, 658
FAO/WHO recommendations, 648
fat intake and, 60, 271, 693
food sources, 48, 280-281, 620, 622-623, 640-641, 643, 691, 771
food supplementation trials, 654
function, 9, 38, 589, 590
gastrointestinal effects, 694
gender difference, 640-641, 643, 644
and gluconeogenesis, 278, 284, 287-288, 293
and glycemic index of foods, 269
and growth, 280-281, 608-609, 654, 683, 811, 839-840
hazard identification, 692-694
high-protein diets, 692-694, 712, 841-844
and immune function, 609, 621, 839
incomplete, 691
insulin response, 279
intake assessment, 695, 960-961
intestinal losses, 600-601
and kidney stones, 694, 841-842
by life stage and gender group, 12-13, 603, 619-662, 1060-1063, 1074-1075
and lipid profile, 60, 840, 843
low-protein diets, 648, 667, 697, 707, 709, 721, 731-732, 839-840
maintenance (homeostasis), 595-597, 598-599, 601-602, 625-627, 630, 632, 657, 660, 668, 683, 684
metabolism, 597-598, 609, 650, 657, 724
methods used to estimate requirements, 635, 637-639
micronutrient availability, 840, 841
nitrogen balance, 9, 279, 287, 611-613, 624-625, 632, 633-644, 650, 654-655, 684, 691, 693, 1250-1253
nitrogen/protein ratio, 684-685
and obesity, 694, 843
and osteoporosis, 694, 841
oxidation, 109
physical activity and, 660-661
planning diets, 946, 961, 964
quality, 14, 60, 589, 608, 611, 621, 643, 661-662, 682-691, 697, 721, 811, 840
RDAs, 9, 12-13, 25, 47, 278, 589, 612-613, 629-630, 631-633, 644-645, 649, 656, 659, 844, 946
and renal function, 609, 694, 842
research recommendations, 737
risk characterization, 695
selection of indicators for estimating requirements, 610-613
special considerations, 621, 656, 660-662
sugar intakes and, 790-791
supplementation, 654, 656, 692, 694, 840
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synthesis, 114, 601-602, 603, 708-709
thermic effect of, 110, 114
total, 619-662
turnover, 598, 601, 602-603, 611, 650, 655, 705
ULs, 692-695
urea production, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, 611, 620, 650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694
vegetarians, 661-662, 840
and weight, 644, 647, 650, 652, 653, 654, 655
Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS), 688-690
Protein–energy malnutrition, 608-610, 704, 839, 840
Protein-free diet, 278, 635, 648, 667, 683
Psyllium (functional fiber), 347, 348, 356, 357-360, 365, 366, 371, 374-375, 388, 398-399, 693-694
Puberty/pubertal development
age at onset, 33, 983
developmental changes, 177
growth spurt, 142
racial/ethnic differences, 33
Purine nucleotide cycle, 604, 605
Pyrimidine nucleotides, 620
Pyruvate, 604, 605
R
Race/ethnicity.
See also African Americans;
Caucasians
and BMR, 146
and energy expenditure, 145-146
and pubertal development
and reporting of dietary intakes, 117
Raffinose, 265, 342
Randomized clinical trials, 42-43, 828-829
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
AIs compared, 6, 26-27
coefficient of variation, 24-25, 47, 285, 289, 292, 293, 630, 632-633, 645, 656, 670, 679, 682
criteria used to derive, 6
defined, 3, 22, 23, 24, 285, 289-290, 292, 293, 629
derivation, 285, 629-630, 633, 644-645, 649, 656, 679, 682
EAR and, 23, 24
method used to set, 24-25, 34, 47, 981-982
not established, 107
replacement with DRIs, 1, 936-937
uses, 24, 25, 26, 936, 938-939, 944, 946
Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), 31, 936-937
Reference weights and heights
and BMI, 35, 36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130
derivation of earlier values, 982-984
and energy requirements, 183
new, 35, 36, 982
use of, 34, 47, 659
Renal cancer, 844
Renal failure, 842
Renal function, 92
Reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715
Requirement, defined, 21-22, 39
Research recommendations.
See also individual nutrients
adverse effects, 970-971
amino acids, 737-738
approach to setting, 968
body composition and size, 225, 240
carbohydrates, 323-324
cholesterol, 574-575, 578
chronic disease relationships to intakes, 970
data and database issues, 969-971
energy, 225, 240, 323-324
fat (total), 324, 505, 514
fiber, 399-400
major information gaps and, 18, 44, 969-971
methodology, 969-970
monounsaturated fatty acids, 505
physical activity, 225, 829
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 508-509, 514
priorities, 18, 971
protein, 737
requirements, 969
saturated fatty acids, 505
trans fatty acids, 514
Resistant dextrins (dietary or functional fiber), 341, 347, 360
Resistant starch (dietary or functional fiber), 268, 342, 344, 347, 348, 360-361, 366, 371, 376-377, 378, 382, 384, 390, 399
Respiratory quotient (RQ), 109, 119-120, 189, 196, 279, 291, 832
Resting energy expenditure (REE), 112, 114, 128, 133, 141, 212
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
aging and, 143
body composition and size and, 131, 135, 138, 144
energy expenditure, 112, 131, 132, 141, 148, 165
FFM and, 113, 139
gender differences, 141
lactation and, 195
menstrual cycle and, 141
weight and, 113, 133, 135
Retinol, 792-793
Retinol binding protein, 609, 610
Rheumatoid arthritis, 487, 722, 824
Riboflavin, 790-791, 835, 840, 1228-1243
Risk assessment models.
See also UL modeling
application to nutrients, 27, 91-94
basic concepts, 86-87
bioavailability considerations, 93-94, 98
defined, 86, 976
environmental chemicals vs. nutrients, 91
EPA guidelines, 1246
and food safety, 86-90, 104
limitations, 100
nutrient–nutrient interactions, 93
process, 87-89, 97-98
sensitivity of individuals, 89, 92-93, 97-98, 100, 101
thresholds, 89-90
uncertainties, 86, 87, 91-92, 100, 1244-1249
Risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 976
Risk management, 87, 89, 104, 976
S
Satiety, 65, 313, 348, 382-384, 388, 794, 795, 796, 843
Saturated fatty acids.
See also individual fatty acids
absorption, 431-432
adverse effects of overconsumption, 481-485
and BMI, 484
and cancer, 484
and CHD risk, 422, 481-484, 797, 798, 799
and diabetes (type 2) risk, 484-485
dietary intake, 474, 960, 1042-1043, 1072-1073, 1076-1077, 1226-1227
energy contribution, 474, 835, 1072-1073, 1226-1227
evidence considered for estimating requirements, 441, 460
excretion, 432
food sources, 424, 425, 474, 475-476, 771, 835, 836
function, 4, 422, 425, 432, 460, 484-485
and glucose tolerance, 484, 485
hazard identification, 481-485
high-intake diets, 836
and insulin sensitivity, 62, 484-485, 806
by life stage and gender group, 1042-1043, 1072-1073
and lipid profile, 422, 432, 481-484, 560, 561, 809, 835
low intake diets, 835
metabolism, 4, 432
and micronutrient intakes, 835
and mortality incidence, 484
in nonvegetarian diets, 1076
and obesity, 484
properties, 424
reducing intakes, 836
research recommendations, 505
and total fat, 58, 424
in vegetarian diets, 835, 1076
Schizophrenia, 720
Scottish Heart Health Study, 316-317, 318-319, 790-793
Selenium, 444
Sensitive subpopulations.
See also Special considerations
identification of, 97-98
Septicemia, 609, 705
Serine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597, 604, 608, 711, 719, 729-730, 736, 1018-1019
Serotonin, 608, 706, 731, 732, 916
Seven Countries Study, 562, 817, 826, 827
Seventh Day Adventists, 363, 835
Skeletal health, physical activity and, 66
Skin cancer, 837
Sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), 112, 118, 140, 147, 165, 195
Snack foods, 118, 732-733
Socioeconomic status, and reporting of dietary intakes, 117
Sodium, 725
Soft drinks, 312-313, 789
Soldiers, 148, 223
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
Somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733
Sorbitol, 266
Special considerations.
See also individual nutrients and life-stage groups
athletes, 221-223, 660-661
chronic diseases, 494
disabled individuals, 30, 660
dose–response assessment, 100, 101
drug interactions, 494
identification of, 92, 102
infant formula, 45, 283, 457, 461, 463, 469, 621
irritable bowel syndrome, 395
linoleic acid:α-linoleic acid ratio, 472
low carbohydrate diets, 293
muscle wasting diseases, 660
negative energy balance, 213-215
overweight and obesity, 202-213, 216-219
phenylketonuria, 728
physical activity, 660-661
twin pregnancy, 656
undernutrition, 220, 221
vegetarians, 661-662
weight maintenance, 202-204, 216-219
weight reduction, 209, 212, 213-215, 219
weight restoration, 220-221
Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project, 811
Specific Dynamic Action. See Thermic effect of food
Stachyose, 265, 342
Starch.
See also Resistant starch
and cancer risk, 321
definition, 267-268
and dental caries, 296
digestion and digestibility, 269, 272
energy yields, 109
food sources, 265-266, 294
glycemic index, 323
insulin sensitivity, 303
lipogenesis, 59, 298-301, 302
slow release vs. fast release, 382
Starvation, 276, 277-279, 284, 430, 437, 595, 605, 609, 693, 704
Stearic acid, 58, 425, 431, 432, 483-484
Sterol-coenzyme A desaturase, 837
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein, 545, 562
Stroke, 59, 230-231, 492-493, 827-828
Stunting, 221, 701
Sucrase, 272, 592
Sucrose, 109, 266, 272, 274, 283, 294, 295, 297, 298-301, 302, 303, 311, 319, 345
Sugar, 323
added, 16, 65, 118, 266-267, 294, 295, 303, 312, 314-315, 318-319, 323, 770, 788-789, 790-793, 810, 812-813, 816, 957, 988-991, 1203-1225
adverse effects of, 295, 319-321
alcohols, 266, 341, 342
behavioral effects, 295-296, 323
and BMI, 65, 310, 313, 316-319
and cancer risk, 55, 319-320, 321, 323
and CHD risk, 303, 800-801
definition, 266-267
and dental caries, 61-62, 296-297, 323
and diabetes type 2, 303
dietary intakes, 118, 266, 294-295, 323, 988-991, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
digestion, 272
energy intake from, 65, 118, 273, 307, 310, 313, 314-315, 770
epidemiological studies, 800-801
extrinsic, 266, 297, 812
food sources, 266-267, 294, 312-313
glycemic index, 323
in high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 810
and insulin sensitivity, 303
intake assessment, 323
intestinal absorption, 273
intrinsic, 265
lipogenicity, 59, 297-302, 323
in low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 788-789, 790-793
maximal intake levels, 16, 810, 816
and micronutrient intake levels, 788-789, 790-793, 809, 812, 1203-1225
and obesity, 307, 310-313, 314-319, 323
substitutes, 346, 695, 702-703, 727
total, 313, 314-315, 316-317, 789, 792, 809, 813-814
uses, 266
Sugar beet fiber, 383, 394, 838
Supplements, dietary.
See also individual nutrients
bioavailability considerations, 29, 93, 94
chronic consumption, 719, 727
clinical trials, 27-28, 85
data sources on intakes, 941
fiber, 345
impurities in, 733
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
intake assessment, 88-89, 104
physical exercise and, 925-926
ULs and, 27, 85, 91-92, 104
T
Tarahumara Indians, 546, 561
Taste and smell acuity, 722
Taurine, 608
Teratogens, 708, 728
Testosterone, 543
Thermic effect of food (TEF).
See also individual nutrients
age/aging and, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179
alcohol, 109-110
defined, 109-110, 114
and energy expenditure, 114, 115, 116, 150, 165, 171
and energy requirements, 165, 171, 190, 196-197
fat, 114
infants, 165
lactation and, 196-197
obesity and overweight and, 133-134, 143
pregnancy and, 190
protein, 110, 114
Thermoregulation, 114, 116, 165-166
Thiamin, 790-791, 1228-1243
Threonine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 597, 601, 604, 615, 618, 661, 663-665, 666, 668, 671-682, 683, 686, 687, 689, 692, 723, 730-731, 736, 1020-1021
Threonine dehydrogenase, 678
Thrombosis, 427
Thromboxanes, 434, 454, 826
Thyroid hormones, 608
Thyroid stimulating hormone, 715
Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years. See Children
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs).
See also UL modeling
applicable population, 84, 89
criteria and proposed values, 12-13
defined, 3, 22, 23, 27-28, 84, 99
derivation of, 27, 85-86, 90, 96, 98, 101, 102
extrapolation on body-weight basis, 34, 47, 85, 86, 101
fortification of foods and, 27, 85
not established for macronutrients, 101-104, 107, 224, 694, 770, 940, 946
offsetting benefits reduction, 103
supplement use and, 27, 85, 88-89, 91-92
uses, 27, 84, 85, 936, 940, 945, 947-948
Total energy expenditure (TEE).
See also Energy expenditure
approach used to determine, 151-164, 202-203
body composition and size and, 132
coefficients and standard errors, 1200-1202
components of, 112-116
data analysis and assumptions for equations, 154-157
defined, 116
DLW data, 116, 117, 119-121, 122-123, 138-139, 141, 151-157, 166, 174, 193, 198-199, 201, 291, 1104-1202
EEPA, 115-116, 117, 133, 138-140, 143-144, 145-146, 147-148
EER derivation, 149-150, 166, 168-169, 174, 176, 181, 183, 186, 193-195, 201, 202-203, 208
equations for normal-weight children, 161-164, 1200
factorial approach, 116, 118-119
gender differences, 166, 174, 202-203, 204, 206-213, 217, 218-219
menstrual cycle and, 141
for obese and overweight individuals, 133, 153, 156-157, 202-204, 209-213, 1168-1182, 1184-1199, 1201-1202
PAL categories, 116, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 1122-1199
regression on variables, 159-161, 164, 214
reported energy intake and, 117-118
RMR and, 132, 148
TEF and, 116
underfeeding studies, 213-215
uses, 951
whole-body calorimetry measurements, 120, 122-123, 140
Toxicity
age and sensitivity to, 92
mechanisms of action, 97
Trans fatty acids
absorption, 436
adverse effects of, 436, 455-456, 494-505
and blood pressure, 504, 506-509
and cancer, 512-515
and cardiovascular disease, 503
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
and cerebrovascular disease, 503
and CHD risk, 58, 423, 504, 510-513
controlled feeding trials, 496-499
dietary intakes, 436, 479, 835, 960
energy contribution, 479, 480
epidemiological studies, 510-515
evidence considered for estimating requirements, 447, 473
excretion, 437
and fetal and infant growth, 436, 455
food sources, 48, 427-428, 436, 455, 479, 480, 495, 836
free-living trials, 500-503
function, 427-428
hazard identification, 494-504
and hemostatic factors, 504, 506-509
high-intake diets, 836
and LDL oxidation, 504, 506-509
and lipid profile, 58, 423, 494-503, 504
low-intake diets, 835
and Lp(a), 496-503, 510-511
measuring intakes, 436
metabolism, 436-437
and polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism metabolism, 455-456
properties, 424, 427
reducing intakes, 836
research recommendations, 514
transport, 436
Transamination, 604, 704, 712
Transferrin, 609, 610
Trauma, 596, 605
Trehalose, 266
Triacylglycerol or triacylglyceride.
See also Fat, total;
Lipids and lipid metabolism
amino acid intake and, 724
carbohydrate intakes and, 59, 275, 783
and CHD risk, 57-58, 59, 437
fat intake and, 777-781
fiber intake and, 60, 351, 354, 356, 357, 359, 360, 361, 367-368, 369
food sources, 473
gluconeogenesis, 275, 278
glycemic index and, 302, 322
glycerol content, 278, 279
hydrolysis of, 429
lipoprotein metabolism and, 61, 278
low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, 777-781
lypolysis, 431
monounsaturated fatty acid intake and, 817-818
physical exercise and, 60
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 820, 821, 822-823, 826, 828, 830-831
protein intake and, 60, 843
sugar intake and, 297-301
synthesis, 431, 432, 439
very low density lipoprotein, 430, 431, 439
Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, 274
Triceps skinfold measurements, 125, 128, 1080-1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093, 1100-1101
Trisaccharides, 272
Trypsin, 599
Tryptophan (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 608, 616, 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, 677, 678, 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 692, 704, 705, 706, 707, 709, 710, 726, 731-734, 736, 1022-1023
24-Hour amino acid balance method, 616-617, 670-671, 676, 677
2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 124, 267
Typhoid vaccine, 488-489, 491
Tyrosine (conditionally indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 594, 597, 608, 617, 619, 663-665, 666, 668, 671-682, 686, 687, 689, 703, 704, 707, 709, 710, 726, 727, 734-736, 1024-1025
Tyrosinemia II, 735
U
Ubiquitin-protease system, 602
UCP1 gene, 145
UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey of Children, 314-315, 790-791
UL modeling.
See also Dose–response assessment;
Risk assessment models
critical endpoint, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102
data selection, 98
hazard identification, 94-98
mathematical models, 85-86
nutrient intake assessment, 104
risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 104-105
uncertainty assessment, 89, 98, 100-101
Ulcerative colitis, 348, 371
Uncertainties
in AIs, 26, 44
amino acid scoring patterns, 688
approaches for dealing with, 1244-1249
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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids
assessment, 89, 98, 100-101
case-by-case judgments, 1246-1247, 1248-1249
in data, 86, 99, 1246
default options, 1246, 1248-1249
dose–response assessment, 98, 100-101
in exposure routes, 98
extrapolation from one age group to another, 101
range of estimates applied to, 1246, 1248-1249
in risk assessment, 86, 87, 91-92, 100-101, 102-103, 1244-1249
Uncertainty factors
defined, 90, 977
for energy intake, 224
inferences from experimental animal studies, 100, 1245-1246
LOAEL instead of NOAEL, 100-101
selection of, 87, 99, 100
sensitivity of individuals, 100
sources of uncertainty in, 100-101
subchronic NOAEL to predict chronic NOAEL, 101
use, 90, 91
Undernutrition, 130, 220
Underweight, 121, 130, 190, 811
United Kingdom Department of Health, 266
United Nations University, 621, 634
United States
fiber definitions, 340
human milk intake and composition, 172-173
physical activity recommendations, 882-883
Urea, 114, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, 611, 620, 650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694, 699, 712
Uric acid, 603, 604
Urinary C-peptide, 322, 353, 361
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 49, 124, 266, 294, 344, 346, 391, 479, 771, 882
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
dietary intake survey data, 49
Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1
2000 Dietary Guidelines, 124, 882-883
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 882
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1246
V
Vaccenic acid, 426, 428
Valine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 597, 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, 677, 678, 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 704-711, 726, 736, 1026-1027
Vegetables. See Fruits and vegetables
Vegetarians, 372, 466, 661-662, 835, 975, 1077
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), 61, 430, 439, 545
remnant, 431, 544
Vision, 439, 440, 468, 711, 714, 720, 722, 729
Vitamin A, 424, 609, 785, 788, 789, 790-793, 811, 812, 813, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224-1225
Vitamin B6, 771, 785, 788, 789, 790-793, 1228-1243
Vitamin B12, 771, 785, 789, 790-791, 813, 835, 1228-1243
Vitamin C, 771, 788, 789, 790-791, 808, 813, 816, 1228-1243
Vitamin D, 424, 790-791, 811, 812, 840, 841
Vitamin E, 424, 444, 493, 785, 789, 790-793, 811, 812, 813, 829, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224-1225
Vitamin K, 424, 788
VLDL cholesterol, 843
W
Waist circumference, 124-125, 127, 1080-1081, 1084-1085, 1094-1099, 1102-1103
Water
and laxation, 370, 398
physical exercise and, 925-926
Weight.
See also Obesity and overweight;
Reference weights and heights;
Underweight;
individual life-stage groups
adaptation, 150
adjustment of DRIs based on, 34
adults, 143, 183, 184, 220, 1078-1081, 1088-1091
age/aging and, 143, 167
amino acids and, 697, 698, 700, 707, 709, 713, 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734
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BEE and, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, 206-213, 888
BMI and, 1080-1081
body fat and, 1090-1091
and chronic disease, 224, 226-229
and diabetes type 2, 802
energy balance and, 65, 150, 212, 214, 220
and energy expenditure, 116, 132, 135, 141, 150, 157, 159-161, 183, 184, 186, 206-213, 215, 216-219, 889, 891-895, 951
energy intake and, 121, 223-224, 793-794, 951-952
and energy requirements, 112, 183, 184, 220
epidemiological studies, 382-383
fat intake and, 441, 452, 773-776, 809
fiber intake and, 65, 339, 351-352, 370, 382-384
gain, 47-48, 110, 121, 143, 144, 167, 186, 223-224, 226-229, 452, 650, 652, 653, 654, 655, 697, 698, 709, 730-732, 734, 802, 951-952
gender differences, 1078-1081, 1088-1091
genetic factors, 144, 452
hypocaloric vs. isocaloric diets, 772
intervention studies, 311, 383-384
loss, 61, 65, 121, 199-200, 204, 209, 212, 215, 217, 219, 225, 311, 313, 351-352, 370, 383, 721, 843, 951
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 311, 773-777
maintenance, 149, 202-209, 216-219, 382-383, 441, 773-777, 951-952
measurement confounding, 202-204
metabolic rate and, 112, 113, 135, 138
overeating and, 121, 151
physical exercise and, 61, 115-116, 213-215, 452, 773
pregnancy, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192, 196, 650, 652, 653, 655, 709
protein (nitrogen) and, 598, 612, 843
rapid loss, 217
recommended, 117
regain after loss, 135
restoration, 220-221
stabilization, 138
and TEE, 159-161
velocity, 142
Whites. See Caucasians
Whole-body calorimetry, 120, 122-123
Women.
See also Gender differences;
Lactation;
Pregnancy
bone mineral density, 841, 928
calcium, 789, 841
carbohydrate intakes compared to other nutrients, 1238-1243
CHD, 363, 364
colon cancer, 373
diabetes type 2, 380, 381
energy expenditure, 140
fiber, 363, 364, 373, 380, 381
glycemic load, 303
menopause, 141, 143, 921
metabolic rate, 140, 141
nutrient intakes with added sugars, 1218-1225
oral contraceptives, 921
physical activity, 138, 140, 894, 913, 921, 928
premenopausal, 140, 141
protein intakes, 695, 841
reference weights and heights, 126
weight control, 352, 773
Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study, 913
World Cancer Research Fund, 321
World Health Organization, 84, 110, 121, 621, 634, 648, 684, 913
X
Xylose, 345
Y
Youth Risk Behavior Study, 923
Z
Zinc, 221, 391, 394, 397-398, 705, 721-723, 771, 785, 789, 790-793, 812, 813-814, 840, 1204-1209, 1212-1219, 1222-1225, 1228-1243
Zutphen Elderly Study, 381, 483, 826, 827
Representative terms from entire chapter:
amino acids
